Glassblowing in the Roman Empire

Roman blown glass hydria from Baelo Claudia (4th century AD)

The invention of glassblowing coincided with the establishment of the Roman Empire in the 1st century BC, which enhanced the spread and dominance of this new technology. Glassblowing was greatly supported by the Roman government (although Roman citizens could not be "in trade", in particular under the reign of Augustus), and glass was being blown in many areas of the Roman world. On the eastern borders of the Empire, the first large glass workshops were set up by the Phoenicians in the birthplace of glassblowing in contemporary Lebanon and Israel as well as in the neighbouring province of Cyprus.

Ennion for example, was among one of the most prominent glassworkers from Lebanon of the time. He was renowned for producing the multi-paneled mold-blown glass vessels that were complex in their shapes, arrangement and decorative motifs. The complexity of designs of these mold-blown glass vessels illustrated the sophistication of the glassworkers in the eastern regions of the Roman Empire. Mold-blown glass vessels manufactured by the workshops of Ennion and other contemporary glassworkers such as Jason, Nikon, Aristeas, and Meges, constitutes some of the earliest evidence of glassblowing found in the eastern territories.

Eventually, the glassblowing technique reached Egypt and was described in a fragmentary poem printed on papyrus which was dated to 3rd century AD. The Roman hegemony over the Mediterranean areas resulted in the substitution of glassblowing for earlier Hellenistic casting, core-forming and mosaic fusion techniques. The earliest evidence of blowing in Hellenistic work consists of small blown bottles for perfume and oil retrieved from the glass workshops on the Greek island of Samothrace and at Corinth in mainland Greece which were dated to the 1st century AD.

Later, the Phoenician glassworkers exploited their glassblowing techniques and set up their workshops in the western territories of the Roman Empire, first in Italy by the middle of the 1st century AD. Rome, the heartland of the Empire, soon became a major glassblowing center, and more glassblowing workshops were subsequently established in other provinces of Italy, for example Campania, Morgantina and Aquileia. A great variety of blown glass objects, ranging from unguentaria (toiletry containers for perfume) to cameo, from tableware to window glass, were produced.

From there, escaping craftsmen (who had been forbidden to travel) otherwise advanced to the rest of Europe by building their glassblowing workshops in the north of the Alps (which is now Switzerland), and then at sites in northern Europe in present-day France and Belgium.

One of the most prolific glassblowing centers of the Roman period was established in Cologne on the river Rhine in Germany by late 1st century BC. Stone base molds and terracotta base molds were discovered from these Rhineland workshops, suggesting the adoption and the application of mold-blowing technique by the glassworkers. Besides, blown flagons and blown jars decorated with ribbing, as well as blown perfume bottles with letters CCAA or CCA which stand for Colonia Claudia Agrippiniensis, were produced from the Rhineland workshops. Remains of blown blue-green glass vessels, for example bottles with a handle, collared bowls and indented beakers, were found in abundance from the local glass workshops at Poetovio and Celeia in Slovenia.

Surviving physical evidence, such as blowpipes and molds which are indicative of the presence of blowing, is fragmentary and limited. Pieces of clay blowpipes were retrieved from the late 1st century AD glass workshop at Avenches in Switzerland. Clay blowpipes, also known as mouthblowers, were made by the ancient glassworkers due to the accessibility and availability of the resources before the introduction of the metal blowpipes. Hollow iron rods, together with blown vessel fragments and glass waste dating to approximately 4th century AD, were recovered from the glass workshop in Mérida of Spain, as well as in Salona in Croatia.

Is Ivory trade legal?

Due to the rapid decline in the populations of the animals that produce it, the importation and sale of elephant ivory in many countries is banned or severely restricted. 
On the other hand, legal trade in ivory is shore by the fact that it does not endanger any living species but only harvests the remains of over 10,000- 30,000 years old fossilized mammoth ivory.

Trade in the ivory from the tusks of dead mammoths has occurred for 300 years and continues to be legal.
In the recent years, global warming and intense melting of the tundra has exposed remains of innumerable raw ivory and mammoth bones that are ecological friendly and fill in the gap created by banning the elephant ivory.
Some estimates suggest that 10 million mammoths are still buried in Siberia.

The use and trade of elephant ivory have become controversial because they have contributed to seriously declining elephant populations in many countries.
Owing to the rapid decline in the populations of the animals that produce it, the importation and sale of ivory in many countries is banned or severely restricted.

Mammoth experts believe that the trade in extinct mammoth ivory is a good way of preserving ecological rich material which would have otherwise been ravaged by time and weather,
while over hundreds of tons of mammoth ivory is still lost in Russia due to poor preservation or over exposure due to natural weather conditions.

Mammoth ivory is the only type of ivory that is allowed legally to enter USA and many other countries.
Even conservationists are happy with this trade as it utilizes raw ivory that would have been wasted otherwise and also saves elephants from illegal poaching to cater to the demand of ivory.

Mammoth Ivory and Feng Shui

From hand crated Chinese dragons and zodiac animals to the 18 Lohans, Three Star Gods and the Foo dogs, Feng Shui symbolism is deeply rooted in the objects that artists carve in mammoth ivory. And Feng Shui is about balance and Chi energy movements, which flow through the body and all over the Universe. Harmony and positive flow of energy in your immediate environment enhances your well-being and positivity. Today people are accepting the age-old traditions and like to have beautifully carved sculptures of the different symbols of Feng Shui dotting the offices and home to bring in prosperity, peace and harmony.

The luster, purity of organic mammoth ivory cannot be seen in any other material and given the limited resources available, mammoth ivory, the only legal ivory in the world is getting more expensive by the day. With a host of high-quality mammoth tusk ivory artifacts and Feng Shui products being carved by the artists of high caliber, the demand has risen in the last few years. Most of the artists located in Hong Kong and China, Feng Shui are close to their beliefs. From delicate Three Star Gods to zodiac animals, the sculptures range from mammoth ivory netsuke to large scale full tusks carved with the Feng Shui symbolism.

The Discovery of Glass

Natural glass has existed since the beginnings of time, formed when certain types of rocks melt as a result of high-temperature phenomena such as volcanic eruptions, lightning strikes or the impact of meteorites, and then cool and solidify rapidly. Stone-age man is believed to have used cutting tools made of obsidian (a natural glass of volcanic origin).

According to historians, Phoenician merchants transporting stone actually discovered glass in the region of Syria around 5000 BC. The merchants, after landing, rested cooking pots on blocks of nitrate placed by their fire. With the intense heat of the fire, the blocks eventually melted and mixed with the sand of the beach to form an opaque liquid.

The earliest man-made glass objects are thought to date back to around 3500 BC, with finds in Egypt and Eastern Messopotamia. In the third millennium, in central Mesopotamia, the basic raw materials of glass were being used principally to produce glazes on pots and vases. The discovery has been coincidental, with calciferous sand finding its way into an overheated kiln and combining with soda to form a colored glaze on the ceramics. It was then, above all, Phoenician merchants and sailors who spread this new art along the coasts of the Mediterranean.

The oldest fragments of glass vases date back to the 16th century BC and were found in Mesopotamia. Hollow glass production was also evolving around this time in Egypt, and there is evidence of other ancient glassmaking activities emerging independently in Mycenae (Greece), China and North Tyrol.

How to recognize Ivory?

There are many items on the Market today being represented and sold as ivory that are actually bone or plastic.

That is why we collected a several methods to help you recognize if the item is ivory or a fake:

* The piece weight: Ivory feels heavy and dense when you hold it in your hand. If the item feels lightweight it's either bone or ivory. 
  Bone can have the exact same weight as ivory. Compare the weight to similar items that you know to be ivory.

* Feel the item texture: Ivory is lustrous and has a smooth surface. If the surface of the piece feels rutted and pockmarked, it might not be ivory.
  Moreover, if you see spots or other odd markings, though, it probably isn't ivory.

* Synthetic ivory: Use a magnifying glass and look for air bubble indentations or small craters that appear from being poured in a mold.
   Synthetic Ivory will have grain lines in one direction, but when looking at the opposite angle, you will not see any lines;
   the ends of the lines on a synthetic piece will make a speckled pattern. This surface is usually the bottom of the piece. 

* Ivory does not have pits or multiple darkened spots, unlike bone.

* The hot pin test: Plastic object dents whenever a very hot object touches its surface. 
   To test for this, find a pin and heat its tip until it is very hot. then touch it to the surface of the material. The results will show you if it is ivory or plastic.

* Plastic contains a single line that sticks out and goes around the material until it meets. This comes from the mold that holds the plastic together.

* Bones: Unlike teeth and tusks, bones have tiny canals that run through them to carry nutrients and house nerves and other organic material.

* Bottom of a piece: Since many collectors and dealers look first at the bottom of a piece, genuine ivory will only have the signature of the artist since the grain confirms the pieces authenticity and value.

* Getting the Item Tested by a Professional: To leave absolutely no question about your item, take it to a forensics lab and have it chemically tested by a scientist.
  The cellular structure of ivory is different from that of bone, but lab equipment is required to determine which is which with finality.

How to take care of Ivory?

Fossil ivory or mammoth ivory is sensitive to surrounding temperature and harsh climatic conditions have an adverse impact. Due to its sensitivity to humidity and temperature, when it expands and contracts, it can split due to stress. We ensure that only the purest of ivory is used that is free of any imperfection after being acclimatized for a number of years above ground. To protect your ivory, it is recommended that you rub mineral oil twice a year to replenish its natural oils. Renaissance Wax can be used to give it a protective polished shine.

However, please bear in mind and do not:

• Spill or put ink on ivory
• Make the ivory wet
• Put the ivory in direct sunlight
• Let the ivory heat up or freeze
• Expose the ivory to fluctuations in temperature and humidity

Snuff bottles

The Chinese began to use snuff bottles to hold powdered tobacco during the Qing Dynasty (1644 – 1912).

Although smoking tobacco was made illegal during that time, snuff was allowed because it was considered a remedy for common illnesses like colds, headaches and stomach disorders.It was carried in a small bottle, like other medicines. It is comparable to the snuff box used in Europe.

Tobacco was introduced to the court at Beijing sometime during the mid to late-16th century. After the Qing Dynasty made smoking tobacco illegal, the use of snuff and snuff bottles spread through the upper class, and by the end of the 17th century, the use of snuff was a social ritual. Eventually, the trend spread to the rest of the country and into every social class. It was common to offer a pinch of snuff as a greeting for friends and relatives. Snuff bottles soon became an object of beauty and a way to represent status— the rarer and finer the snuff bottle, the higher the owner’s status. Snuff bottle manufacturing hit its peak during the 18th century.

The use of snuff died out soon after the establishment of the Republic of China. However, replica snuff bottles are still made, and can be purchased in souvenir shops, flea markets and museum gift shops. Original snuff bottles from the Qing period are highly desirable for both serious collectors and museums. A good bottle is not only exquisitely beautiful but should have a wonderful tactile quality. After all, snuff bottles were made to be held. The most fascinating snuff bottles are those with paintings on the inside of them.

What Are Crystals?

A crystal is a hard, solid substance made of molecules that bond together in specific patterns to form an interesting shape that has straight edges and flat surfaces. Not all crystals have the same shape, there are actually lots of different kinds of crystals, and each kind has its own special shape. Beautiful crystals are used for jewelry, like diamonds or emeralds. Crystals are often transparent, which means that you can see through them sort of like you can see through glass. Other kinds have beautiful colors.

What a crystal is made of actually depends on what kind of crystal it is - for example, salt and snowflakes are actually formed out of different kinds of crystals. Snowflakes are made from crystals formed by frozen water. Salt crystals are formed by some chemical elements which join together in a crystal shape. Crystals can be formed in several different ways. Most crystals are formed through evaporation. Some types of crystals are formed from melted rock in the earth: When the hot rock cools gradually, it will sometimes form crystals. Geodes are round rocks that are formed when bubbles are trapped in the melted rock. As the bubbles cool down, crystals grow inside of the bubble of rock.

As a crystal grows, the pattern that makes it a certain shape will be repeated over and over, so the crystal will always keep the same shape as it gets bigger. The chemical elements that a crystal is made of are what tell the crystal what shape it will be. A lot of crystals might seem to look alike, but what elements the crystal is made out of will make it a unique shape and color. Even the same element can make different crystals, based on conditions such as temperature and light and what other elements are around. 

Modern Glassblowing

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Crystal Structure

The scientific definition of a "crystal" is based on the microscopic arrangement of atoms inside it, called the crystal structure. A crystal is a solid where the atoms form a periodic arrangement.

Not all solids are crystals. For example, when liquid water starts freezing, the phase change begins with small ice crystals that grow until they fuse, forming a polycrystalline structure. In the final block of ice, each of the small crystals (called "crystallites" or "grains") is a true crystal with a periodic arrangement of atoms, but the whole polycrystal does not have a periodic arrangement of atoms, because the periodic pattern is broken at the grain boundaries. Most macroscopic inorganic solids are polycrystalline, including almost all metals, ceramics, ice, rocks, etc. Solids that are neither crystalline nor polycrystalline, such as glass, are called amorphous solids, also called glassy, vitreous, or noncrystalline. These have no periodic order, even microscopically. There are distinct differences between crystalline solids and amorphous solids: most notably, the process of forming a glass does not release the latent heat of fusion, but forming a crystal does.

A crystal structure (an arrangement of atoms in a crystal) is characterized by its unit cell, a small imaginary box containing one or more atoms in a specific spatial arrangement. The unit cells are stacked in three-dimensional space to form the crystal.

The symmetry of a crystal is constrained by the requirement that the unit cells stack perfectly with no gaps. There are 219 possible crystal symmetries, called crystallographic space groups. These are grouped into 7 crystal systems, such as cubic crystal system (where the crystals may form cubes or rectangular boxes, such as halite shown at right) or hexagonal crystal system (where the crystals may form hexagons, such as ordinary water ice).

The Chinese Zodiac

Chinese zodiac is a scheme, and a systematic plan of future action, that is based on the year which in a person born.
Each year is represented by an animal in a 12-year cycle. 

The animal's cycle:
1. Rat. 2. Ox. 3. Tiger. 4. Rabbit. 5. Dragon. 6. Snake. 7. Horse. 8. Goat 9. Monkey. 10. Rooster. 11. Dog. 12. Pig.

After 12 years the cycle begins from the start (the first year that is represented by the rat), and repeats itself. 
The belief in the Chinese Zodiac remains popular in several East Asian countries, such as China, Vietnam, Korea, Taiwan and Japan.

Identifying this scheme using the term "zodiac" reflects time cycles divided into 12 parts, 
and is widely associated with a culture of attributing influence of a person's relationship to the cycle upon their personality and/or events in their life. 
The greatest difference from western astrology is that the animals of the Chinese zodiac are not associated with constellations.

In Chinese astrology the animal signs assigned by year represent what others perceive you as being or how you present yourself. 
Did you know? 
The Chinese Zodiac animals assigned by year are not the only signs. 
Actually, there are also animal signs assigned by month (called inner animals), by day (called true animals) and hours (called secret animals).