Glassblowing in the Roman Empire

Roman blown glass hydria from Baelo Claudia (4th century AD)

The invention of glassblowing coincided with the establishment of the Roman Empire in the 1st century BC, which enhanced the spread and dominance of this new technology. Glassblowing was greatly supported by the Roman government (although Roman citizens could not be "in trade", in particular under the reign of Augustus), and glass was being blown in many areas of the Roman world. On the eastern borders of the Empire, the first large glass workshops were set up by the Phoenicians in the birthplace of glassblowing in contemporary Lebanon and Israel as well as in the neighbouring province of Cyprus.

Ennion for example, was among one of the most prominent glassworkers from Lebanon of the time. He was renowned for producing the multi-paneled mold-blown glass vessels that were complex in their shapes, arrangement and decorative motifs. The complexity of designs of these mold-blown glass vessels illustrated the sophistication of the glassworkers in the eastern regions of the Roman Empire. Mold-blown glass vessels manufactured by the workshops of Ennion and other contemporary glassworkers such as Jason, Nikon, Aristeas, and Meges, constitutes some of the earliest evidence of glassblowing found in the eastern territories.

Eventually, the glassblowing technique reached Egypt and was described in a fragmentary poem printed on papyrus which was dated to 3rd century AD. The Roman hegemony over the Mediterranean areas resulted in the substitution of glassblowing for earlier Hellenistic casting, core-forming and mosaic fusion techniques. The earliest evidence of blowing in Hellenistic work consists of small blown bottles for perfume and oil retrieved from the glass workshops on the Greek island of Samothrace and at Corinth in mainland Greece which were dated to the 1st century AD.

Later, the Phoenician glassworkers exploited their glassblowing techniques and set up their workshops in the western territories of the Roman Empire, first in Italy by the middle of the 1st century AD. Rome, the heartland of the Empire, soon became a major glassblowing center, and more glassblowing workshops were subsequently established in other provinces of Italy, for example Campania, Morgantina and Aquileia. A great variety of blown glass objects, ranging from unguentaria (toiletry containers for perfume) to cameo, from tableware to window glass, were produced.

From there, escaping craftsmen (who had been forbidden to travel) otherwise advanced to the rest of Europe by building their glassblowing workshops in the north of the Alps (which is now Switzerland), and then at sites in northern Europe in present-day France and Belgium.

One of the most prolific glassblowing centers of the Roman period was established in Cologne on the river Rhine in Germany by late 1st century BC. Stone base molds and terracotta base molds were discovered from these Rhineland workshops, suggesting the adoption and the application of mold-blowing technique by the glassworkers. Besides, blown flagons and blown jars decorated with ribbing, as well as blown perfume bottles with letters CCAA or CCA which stand for Colonia Claudia Agrippiniensis, were produced from the Rhineland workshops. Remains of blown blue-green glass vessels, for example bottles with a handle, collared bowls and indented beakers, were found in abundance from the local glass workshops at Poetovio and Celeia in Slovenia.

Surviving physical evidence, such as blowpipes and molds which are indicative of the presence of blowing, is fragmentary and limited. Pieces of clay blowpipes were retrieved from the late 1st century AD glass workshop at Avenches in Switzerland. Clay blowpipes, also known as mouthblowers, were made by the ancient glassworkers due to the accessibility and availability of the resources before the introduction of the metal blowpipes. Hollow iron rods, together with blown vessel fragments and glass waste dating to approximately 4th century AD, were recovered from the glass workshop in Mérida of Spain, as well as in Salona in Croatia.

Is Ivory trade legal?

Due to the rapid decline in the populations of the animals that produce it, the importation and sale of elephant ivory in many countries is banned or severely restricted. 
On the other hand, legal trade in ivory is shore by the fact that it does not endanger any living species but only harvests the remains of over 10,000- 30,000 years old fossilized mammoth ivory.

Trade in the ivory from the tusks of dead mammoths has occurred for 300 years and continues to be legal.
In the recent years, global warming and intense melting of the tundra has exposed remains of innumerable raw ivory and mammoth bones that are ecological friendly and fill in the gap created by banning the elephant ivory.
Some estimates suggest that 10 million mammoths are still buried in Siberia.

The use and trade of elephant ivory have become controversial because they have contributed to seriously declining elephant populations in many countries.
Owing to the rapid decline in the populations of the animals that produce it, the importation and sale of ivory in many countries is banned or severely restricted.

Mammoth experts believe that the trade in extinct mammoth ivory is a good way of preserving ecological rich material which would have otherwise been ravaged by time and weather,
while over hundreds of tons of mammoth ivory is still lost in Russia due to poor preservation or over exposure due to natural weather conditions.

Mammoth ivory is the only type of ivory that is allowed legally to enter USA and many other countries.
Even conservationists are happy with this trade as it utilizes raw ivory that would have been wasted otherwise and also saves elephants from illegal poaching to cater to the demand of ivory.

Mammoth Ivory and Feng Shui

From hand crated Chinese dragons and zodiac animals to the 18 Lohans, Three Star Gods and the Foo dogs, Feng Shui symbolism is deeply rooted in the objects that artists carve in mammoth ivory. And Feng Shui is about balance and Chi energy movements, which flow through the body and all over the Universe. Harmony and positive flow of energy in your immediate environment enhances your well-being and positivity. Today people are accepting the age-old traditions and like to have beautifully carved sculptures of the different symbols of Feng Shui dotting the offices and home to bring in prosperity, peace and harmony.

The luster, purity of organic mammoth ivory cannot be seen in any other material and given the limited resources available, mammoth ivory, the only legal ivory in the world is getting more expensive by the day. With a host of high-quality mammoth tusk ivory artifacts and Feng Shui products being carved by the artists of high caliber, the demand has risen in the last few years. Most of the artists located in Hong Kong and China, Feng Shui are close to their beliefs. From delicate Three Star Gods to zodiac animals, the sculptures range from mammoth ivory netsuke to large scale full tusks carved with the Feng Shui symbolism.

The Discovery of Glass

Natural glass has existed since the beginnings of time, formed when certain types of rocks melt as a result of high-temperature phenomena such as volcanic eruptions, lightning strikes or the impact of meteorites, and then cool and solidify rapidly. Stone-age man is believed to have used cutting tools made of obsidian (a natural glass of volcanic origin).

According to historians, Phoenician merchants transporting stone actually discovered glass in the region of Syria around 5000 BC. The merchants, after landing, rested cooking pots on blocks of nitrate placed by their fire. With the intense heat of the fire, the blocks eventually melted and mixed with the sand of the beach to form an opaque liquid.

The earliest man-made glass objects are thought to date back to around 3500 BC, with finds in Egypt and Eastern Messopotamia. In the third millennium, in central Mesopotamia, the basic raw materials of glass were being used principally to produce glazes on pots and vases. The discovery has been coincidental, with calciferous sand finding its way into an overheated kiln and combining with soda to form a colored glaze on the ceramics. It was then, above all, Phoenician merchants and sailors who spread this new art along the coasts of the Mediterranean.

The oldest fragments of glass vases date back to the 16th century BC and were found in Mesopotamia. Hollow glass production was also evolving around this time in Egypt, and there is evidence of other ancient glassmaking activities emerging independently in Mycenae (Greece), China and North Tyrol.

How to recognize Ivory?

There are many items on the Market today being represented and sold as ivory that are actually bone or plastic.

That is why we collected a several methods to help you recognize if the item is ivory or a fake:

* The piece weight: Ivory feels heavy and dense when you hold it in your hand. If the item feels lightweight it's either bone or ivory. 
  Bone can have the exact same weight as ivory. Compare the weight to similar items that you know to be ivory.

* Feel the item texture: Ivory is lustrous and has a smooth surface. If the surface of the piece feels rutted and pockmarked, it might not be ivory.
  Moreover, if you see spots or other odd markings, though, it probably isn't ivory.

* Synthetic ivory: Use a magnifying glass and look for air bubble indentations or small craters that appear from being poured in a mold.
   Synthetic Ivory will have grain lines in one direction, but when looking at the opposite angle, you will not see any lines;
   the ends of the lines on a synthetic piece will make a speckled pattern. This surface is usually the bottom of the piece. 

* Ivory does not have pits or multiple darkened spots, unlike bone.

* The hot pin test: Plastic object dents whenever a very hot object touches its surface. 
   To test for this, find a pin and heat its tip until it is very hot. then touch it to the surface of the material. The results will show you if it is ivory or plastic.

* Plastic contains a single line that sticks out and goes around the material until it meets. This comes from the mold that holds the plastic together.

* Bones: Unlike teeth and tusks, bones have tiny canals that run through them to carry nutrients and house nerves and other organic material.

* Bottom of a piece: Since many collectors and dealers look first at the bottom of a piece, genuine ivory will only have the signature of the artist since the grain confirms the pieces authenticity and value.

* Getting the Item Tested by a Professional: To leave absolutely no question about your item, take it to a forensics lab and have it chemically tested by a scientist.
  The cellular structure of ivory is different from that of bone, but lab equipment is required to determine which is which with finality.

How to take care of Ivory?

Fossil ivory or mammoth ivory is sensitive to surrounding temperature and harsh climatic conditions have an adverse impact. Due to its sensitivity to humidity and temperature, when it expands and contracts, it can split due to stress. We ensure that only the purest of ivory is used that is free of any imperfection after being acclimatized for a number of years above ground. To protect your ivory, it is recommended that you rub mineral oil twice a year to replenish its natural oils. Renaissance Wax can be used to give it a protective polished shine.

However, please bear in mind and do not:

• Spill or put ink on ivory
• Make the ivory wet
• Put the ivory in direct sunlight
• Let the ivory heat up or freeze
• Expose the ivory to fluctuations in temperature and humidity

Snuff bottles

The Chinese began to use snuff bottles to hold powdered tobacco during the Qing Dynasty (1644 – 1912).

Although smoking tobacco was made illegal during that time, snuff was allowed because it was considered a remedy for common illnesses like colds, headaches and stomach disorders.It was carried in a small bottle, like other medicines. It is comparable to the snuff box used in Europe.

Tobacco was introduced to the court at Beijing sometime during the mid to late-16th century. After the Qing Dynasty made smoking tobacco illegal, the use of snuff and snuff bottles spread through the upper class, and by the end of the 17th century, the use of snuff was a social ritual. Eventually, the trend spread to the rest of the country and into every social class. It was common to offer a pinch of snuff as a greeting for friends and relatives. Snuff bottles soon became an object of beauty and a way to represent status— the rarer and finer the snuff bottle, the higher the owner’s status. Snuff bottle manufacturing hit its peak during the 18th century.

The use of snuff died out soon after the establishment of the Republic of China. However, replica snuff bottles are still made, and can be purchased in souvenir shops, flea markets and museum gift shops. Original snuff bottles from the Qing period are highly desirable for both serious collectors and museums. A good bottle is not only exquisitely beautiful but should have a wonderful tactile quality. After all, snuff bottles were made to be held. The most fascinating snuff bottles are those with paintings on the inside of them.